Think of a solar panel as a quiet factory on your roof. Sunlight shows up as tiny packets of energy called photons. The panel’s job is to turn those photons into moving electrons, then turn that motion into useful electricity that runs your lights, fridge, and phone charger without complaining.

Inside each panel are many photovoltaic cells. A typical cell starts as ultra pure silicon arranged in a crystal. On purpose, the crystal is tweaked with tiny amounts of other elements. One side gets a pinch of phosphorus which creates extra free electrons and is called the n side. The other side gets a touch of boron which leaves a few electron “vacancies” called holes and is called the p side. Where the p and n sides meet, electrons and holes mingle and cancel out, which leaves behind a thin region without mobile charges. That thin region has an electric field built in. It is the heart of the solar cell.

When sunlight hits the cell, photons are absorbed in the silicon. If a photon carries enough energy, it can kick an electron free from its bond and leave behind a hole. Now you have a brand new electron hole pair. The built in electric field at the p & n junction quickly pushes the electron one way and the hole the other way before they can recombine. That separation creates a tiny voltage. Add a conductive path at the top and bottom of the cell and the electrons take that path. Moving electrons are electric current. Current times voltage is power. Congratulations, you just made electricity out of sunshine.

A single cell only provides about half a volt, which is not very helpful by itself. Manufacturers connect many cells in series to add their voltages together, then laminate them into a weatherproof sandwich. The top is low iron tempered glass that lets in as much light as possible. Beneath the glass is an anti reflective coating that reduces glare and helps photons enter the silicon instead of bouncing off. A clear encapsulant holds the cells in place and protects them from moisture. Fine silver or aluminum fingers on the front collect electrons, and wider busbars carry them out of the cell. The back has a protective sheet and another conductor. Bypass diodes sit across groups of cells so that if a section is shaded the current can detour around it rather than drag the whole panel down.

TLDR; sunlight knocks loose electrons inside tiny silicon sandwiches. An internal electric field separates the charges and sends them through metal pathways. Panels add up those tiny voltages and currents into useful power.